깊은 불심의 상징이자 압축물 인도 불탑, 그 유구하고 찬란한 문화

불교 역사의 기원인 ‘인도’는 불교가 시작된 근원지이자 성지이다. 기원전 5세기경 붓다에 의해 탄생한 불교는 지금까지 이어져 왔고 그로 인해 다양한 모습의 불교문화가 형성되었다.
우리나라 역사에서도 ‘불교’를 빼놓고 이야기할 수는 없을 것이다. 그만큼 우리는 불교와 밀접한 관련을 맺어왔고 깊게 영향을 받았다.
국가, 인종에 관계없이 사람들은 다양한 방법으로 불심을 표현했다. 그중 불심의 상징이자 압축물이라고 할 수 있는 대표적인 건축물은 바로 ‘탑’이다. 탑은 단순한 건축물이 아니다. 붓다를 가리키는 상징적 조형물이자 붓다에 대한 존경심과 깊은 신앙으로 쌓아 올린 하나의 ‘문화’이다. 특히나 불교 신자에게는 신앙생활에서 빼놓을 수 없는 중추적인 존재이기도 하다.
인도 불탑에 대한 저자의 개인적 호기심이 구체적으로 발전했던 계기는 “인도 탑의 독특한 형태와 엄청난 수의 부조상 등이 무엇을 의미하고 있는지, 단순히 불교라는 범위 내로 한정하지 않고 인도인들에게 있어서 어떠한 의미를 지니고 무엇을 의미하는지”에 대한 궁금증이었다. 이러한 궁금증을 체계적으로 정리하고 기록하기 위해 저자는 인도, 파키스탄, 중국을 직접 답사하며 본격적으로 불탑에 관한 연구를 시작한다.

불교가 뿌리내린 기원의 땅 인도,
현지답사를 통해 생생하게 기록한 인도 불탑의 모든 것

저자는 인도 유적을 탐사하며 석가모니 부처님의 유골을 봉안한 분묘이자 기념비인 ‘스투파Stupa’라는 새로운 존재를 알게 된다. 스투파는 우리에겐 ‘탑塔’, ‘탑파塔婆’ 등으로 알려져 있다. 저자는 인도 곳곳을 답사하며 스투파의 기원과 형태, 구성 요소 등을 눈으로 담고 사진과 글로 기록하며 직접 인도 불탑의 역사를 다시 정리해 나간다.
이렇듯 『인도 불탑』은 인도 역사 속에서 살아 숨 쉬는 ‘불탑 문화’를 생생하고 일목요연하게 정리한 책이다. 저자는 인도 현지를 탐사하며 현존하는 자료들 중에서 인도 불탑에 관한 많은 부분이 상당수 왜곡되었거나 오류가 있음을 발견했다. 그렇게 직접 사진을 찍고, 기존 자료들의 ‘근원’을 찾아가면서 치열하게 연구하는 나날들이 계속되었다. 모든 불탑을 조사할 수는 없었으나, 불탑의 유구 가운데 답사가 가능하거나 자료 취득을 할 수 있는 유구를 중심으로 탐사해 나갔다.
저자는 머리말을 통해 “이 책은 인도불교의 일반 사원과 석굴사원의 불탑, 불탑을 봉안한 차이티야굴caitya caves의 조영 이유와 형식 분석을 통해 초기 불탑의 조성 과정 및 의의, 편년을 고찰하고 불탑의 변화 과정을 알아보는 데 목적이 있다.”고 밝히고 있다.
저자가 책 전반부에 가장 먼저 정리한 것은 고대 인도의 스투파 조성에 관한 자료이다. 스투파의 용어와 기원, 구성 요소, 석존의 열반과 장례, 그리고 다양한 불탑의 유형과 불탑이 가지는 상징성, 조성 의미에 대해 서술했다. 또한 석굴사원인 ’차이티야굴‘의 불탑에 대한 기록을 담았다. 불탑의 형식이나 특징, 변화 등을 고찰하며 저자의 관점으로 새롭게 해석하였다.
뿐만 아니라 우즈베키스탄, 타지기스탄, 신장웨이우얼 등에 남아 있는 불탑의 비교 고찰을 통해 인도 불탑의 변화 과정을 상세히 설명해두었다. 특히 저자가 현지답사와 논문 작성 과정에서 얻은 인도 전역의 불탑 현황과 각각의 다양한 특징을 정리함으로써 시기, 지역별 불탑의 특징을 파악할 수 있도록 했다.
저자는 “18세기 이후 많은 학자에 의해 인도 불탑의 연구가 이뤄졌지만, 일부 불탑에 치중된 부분적 측면이 있다. 이를 해소하기 위해 이 책에서는 그동안 취급하지 않았거나, 소홀했던 개별적 불탑에 대해 현시점에서 많이 다룸으로써 오류를 최대한 해소코자 하였다.”라고 말한다. 이미 연구가 이루어진 불탑에 대한 재조사, 그리고 그간 제대로 다뤄지지 않았거나 누락되었던 불탑에 대한 자료를 추가함으로써 이 책이 불탑 연구에 대한 또 다른 새로운 기준점으로 기능할 수 있음을 시사하고 있는 부분이다.

과거와 현재, 미래를 아우르는 종교적·역사적 유구이자 문화적 자산

티베트의 정신적 지도자 달라이 라마(85)의 첫 한국인 비구 제자인 청전 스님은 『인도 불탑』의 추천사를 통해 “이 책은 탑의 연구 보고서로 우리가 알고 있던 탑에 대한 지식에서 벗어
나며 탑 신앙과 함께 바른 역사적인 신앙의 탑을 알게 되리라 확신한다.”라고 전했다.
앞서 언급했듯이 탑은 불교 신자들에게 단순한 조형물 이상의 의미를 지닌다. 그것은 붓다라는 존재를 향한 신앙심의 근원을 상기시키는 건축물이자 부처님의 존재를 상징하는 신성한 ‘문화’이다.
독자들은 이 책을 통해 기존의 탑에 대한 기본적인 지식의 확장을 넘어 기나긴 역사 속에서 조성되어온 탑의 특징과 변화들을 통해 신심의 의미를 다시금 되새겨보는 소중한 경험을 하게 될 것이다.



<본문 중에서>

불탑은 석존의 사리가 봉안된 사리탑인 것은 더 말할 필요가 없다. 그런데 석존의 열반 이전에 죽은 제자, 사리불이나 목건련의 스투파는 석존의 불탑보다 먼저 만들어진 것이기에 그들의 스투파도 불탑으로 불릴 수 있다. 과거불로 부르는 것은 분명치 않지만, 만약 실존한다면 그들의 탑은 석존의 불탑에 선행하는 불탑이 된다. 또는 홀로 깨달은 자를 의미하는 벽지불(？支佛)의 탑도 마찬가지이고, 석존 제세 시에 세워졌다는 머리카락을 봉안한 발탑(髮塔), 손톱을 봉안한 조탑(爪塔)의 예도 있다. 그렇지만 일반적으로는 석존의 불탑이 최초이며 그것을 모방하여 다른 탑이 만들어진 것으로 알려진다. 과연 불탑 이전에 다른 불탑이 존재했을까?
-1장 「고대인도印度와 불탑」 중에서

‘스투파’라는 용어는 불교에서만 사용된다. 이 문제에 대해서는 아쉽게도 현재로서는 알 수 없다. 단지 스투파라는 용어가 ‘베다’에 나타남으로써 불교이전에 존재했음을 알 수 있고 불교 측에서 사용하게 된 용어임을 추정할 뿐이다. (...) 스투파 즉 불탑佛塔은 건립됨으로써 공경하는 사람들의 다양한 생각 속에 살아 숨쉬며, 불탑 자체가 여러 가지의 의미를 내포한 하나의 상징을 나타내는 복합체라고 할 수 있다.
-2장 「건축물로서의 불탑」 중에서

2세기경 출가자들도 불탑 숭배에 동참하는 것이 명문을 통해 확인된다. 아소카왕 대 이후 불탑에 대한 숭배가 현실적으로 이루어지면서도 그때까지 불탑 숭배에 대한 불교 교단의 자세가 정립되지 않아 각각의 불교 교단에서 갈등이 발생했음을 짐작할 수 있다.
대표적인 예로 대중부 계통에서는 ‘탑 숭배는 과果가 적고’, 설일체유부(說一切有部) 계통에서는 ‘탑원에 대한 시주는 공덕의 과가 적으며 석존에게 시주하는 것보다 스님에게 시주하는 편이 더욱 큰 과가 있다’라고 하며 자신들의 이익이 되지 않는 불탑 숭배를 적극적으로 하지 않았다. 그런데 우바새와 우바이가 석굴사원의 불탑 시주에 적극적으로 참여를 한다는 것은 사상이나 수행환경 등 변화가 나타나는 것을 암시해주고 있다.
불탑 숭배는 재가자 및 출가자들과 교단 측에게 불교의 중요한 예배 의식으로 정착되어 갔다. 석굴사원에서도 초기에는 ‘말발굽형’ 차이티야굴이 다수 개착되다가 2세기 이후 ‘방형’ 차이티야굴이 일반적으로 개착된다. 한편 차이티야굴 내부에 스님의 거주처인 독방이 개착되고 이후 다수의 독방이 개착된 비하라굴 내부에 예배용 불탑이 봉안되기에 이른 것이다.
-3장 「인도불교 석굴사원」 중에서

일반사원의 불탑은 왜 알 형태가 아닌 반구형의 모습을 띠게 되었을까? 우주 창조 신화와의 연관성도 있지만 다른 측면은 축조과정에서 나타난 결과라고 할 수 있다. 일반사원 불탑의 발굴조사 결과 석굴사원 불탑과는 비교가 안 될 정도로 일반사원 불탑의 규모가 크다. 지름이 수십 미터에 달한다. 일반사원 불탑에 사용된 부재는 주로 흙과 벽돌을 쌓은 소규모 언덕 형태로 조성되었다. 아래에서 위로 올라갈수록 지름이 넓어졌다 다시 좁아지는 구 형태를 조적組積 방법으로 표현하기에는 기술이 부족했다. 즉 당시 인도인들의 축조방법으로는 우주 창조의 상징적인 의미를 구현하는 것이 불가능했다.
그러나 석굴사원의 불탑은 조각이다. 즉 돌을 깎아내고 다듬어 내는 방법이므로 둥근 형태로의 조영이 가능했기에 이러한 둥근 형태인 알 또는 구 형태로 나타난 것이라 할 수 있다. 즉 불탑이 지니는 상징성을 인도인들은 조각으로 구현해낸 것이다.
-4장 「차이티야굴의 불탑」 중에서

추천사·················································································· 5
책을 펴내며··········································································· 9
머리말················································································· 17

1장 고대인도印度와 불탑
1. 고대인도와 불교····························································· 30
1) 베다 시대··································································· 33
2) 불교 경전 시대····························································· 37
2. 석존의 열반과 불탑··························································· 39
1) 석존의 장례································································· 41
2) 사리 8분과 10탑 건립 전설·············································· 45
3) 근본 8탑의 소재 및 전설 검증·········································· 50
4) 불탑 이전의 불탑·························································· 60

2장 건축물로서의 불탑
1. 스투파 용어···································································· 68
2. 스투파 기원···································································· 72
3. 스투파 구성요소····························································· 76
1) 기단Medhi, 난간Vedika····················································· 80
2) 탑돌이 통로(Pradakshina patha, 繞道)······························· 81
3) 탑문Torana··································································· 82
4) 복발(Anda, 覆鉢)························································· 83
5) 하르미카(Harmika, 平頭), 탑두부塔頭部······························ 86
6) 상부구조 명칭······························································ 93
4. 스투파 유형···································································· 96
1) 유적Relic 스투파··························································· 97
2) 기념Commemorative 스투파··············································· 97
3) 상징Symbolic 스투파······················································· 98
4) 개체Object 스투파·························································· 98
5) 봉헌Votive 스투파·························································· 99
5. 불탑 축조방식······························································· 100
6. 불탑의 공양(Puja, 供養)과 기능·········································· 106
7. 불교미술과 불탑···························································· 112
1) 불교 조각상의 조성과 의의············································ 114
2) 열반 미술의 탄생························································ 116
3) 호탑신···································································· 118
4) 여성상과 미투나상······················································ 120
8. 불탑 조성과 의미···························································· 124
1) 불탑 조성의 상징적 의미··············································· 124
2) 불탑 조성의 실용적 의미··············································· 128

3장 인도불교 석굴사원
1. 석굴사원의 기원과 전개··················································· 134
2. 석굴사원의 조영···························································· 139
1) 불교석굴·································································· 144
2) 힌두교석굴······························································· 155
3) 자이나교석굴····························································· 165
3. 불교 석굴의 명문銘文······················································· 168
4. 법신사리 신앙의 태동······················································ 174
5. 불교 차이티야굴의 유형··················································· 184
1) 원형 차이티야굴 형식·················································· 189
2) 말발굽형 차이티야굴 형식············································· 198
3) 방형 차이티야굴 형식·················································· 242
4) 승방 부설 차이티야굴 형식··········································· 255
5) 탑당 부설 차이티야굴 형식············································ 259
6) 환조 건물 형식(탑사, 塔寺)··········································· 271
6. 불교 차이티야굴의 변천··················································· 281
1) ‘말발굽형’ 석굴의 변천················································· 283
2) ‘방형’ 석굴의 변천······················································· 289
3) 차이티야굴의 변천 의의··············································· 298
7. 불교 석굴사원의 편년······················································ 302

4장 차이티야굴의 불탑
1. 차이티야굴 불탑의 형식··················································· 322
1) 기본형······································································ 322
2) 층단받침형································································ 324
3) 일산日傘형································································· 326
4) 기단추가형································································ 329
5) 불상ㆍ불감佛龕추가형···················································· 331
6) 환조 건물형 및 노천형·················································· 334
2. 차이티야굴 불탑의 양식 변천············································ 339
1) 복발(Anda, 覆鉢)························································ 340
2) 난간········································································· 343
3) 탑두부 (하르미카와 층단받침, 산간, 일산)························· 349

5장 인도의 불탑
1. 중인도 불탑·································································· 361
1) 마디아 프라데시주Madhya Pradesh····································· 362
2) 우타르 프라데시주Uttar Pradesh와 네팔······························· 365
3) 비하르주Bihar······························································ 371
2. 남인도 불탑·································································· 378
3. 북인도 불탑·································································· 389
4. 동인도ㆍ서인도ㆍ방글라데시 불탑·········································· 393
5. 인도 불탑의 특징···························································· 399
1) 중인도 불탑의 특징······················································ 399

6장 간다라의 불탑
1. 파키스탄 불탑······························································· 413
1) 페샤와르Peshwar 지역···················································· 413
2) 탁실라Taxila 지역························································· 417
3) 스와트Swat 지역·························································· 427
2. 아프가니스탄Afghanistan 불탑············································· 432
3. 중앙아시아 불탑···························································· 438
1) 우즈베키스탄······························································ 438
2) 카자흐스탄Kazakhstan, 키르기스스탄Kyrgyzstan,
타지키스탄Tajikstan 불탑················································ 442
4. 신장웨이우얼新疆維吾爾自治區 불탑······································· 444
5. 간다라 불탑의 특징과 변천··············································· 451
1) 간다라 불탑의 특징······················································ 451
2) 간다라 불탑의 형식······················································ 461
3) 간다라 불탑의 변천······················································ 472
맺음말··············································································· 475
참고문헌············································································ 481
도판목록············································································ 494
표목록··············································································· 499